Shale oil

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This article is about synthetic oil produced by pyrolysis, hydrogenation, or thermal dissolution from oil shale. For crude oil stored in shale reservoirs, see Tight oil.

Shale oil is an unconventional oil produced from oil shale by pyrolysis, hydrogenation, or thermal dissolution. These processes convert the organic matter within the rock (kerogen) into synthetic oil and gas. The resulting oil can be used immediately as a fuel or upgraded to meet refinery feedstock specifications by adding hydrogen and removing impurities such as sulfur and nitrogen. The refined products can be used for the same purposes as those derived from crude oil.

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Upgrading

Although raw shale oil can be immediately burnt as a fuel oil, many of its applications require that it be upgraded. The differing properties of the raw oils call for correspondingly various pre-treatments before it can be sent to a conventional oil refinery.[1]

Particulates in the raw oil clog downstream processes; sulfur and nitrogen create air pollution. Sulfur and nitrogen, along with the arsenic and iron that may be present, also destroy the catalysts used in refining.[2][3] Olefins form insoluble sediments and cause instability. The oxygen within the oil, present at higher levels than in crude oil, lends itself to the formation of destructive free radicals.[4] Hydrodesulfurization and hydrodenitrogenation can address these problems and result in a product comparable to benchmark crude oil.[5][4][6][7] Phenols can be first be removed by water extraction.[7] Upgrading shale oil into transport fuels requires adjusting hydrogen–carbon ratios by adding hydrogen (hydrocracking) or removing carbon (coking).[6][7]

Shale oil produced by some technologies, such as the Kiviter process, can be used without further upgrading as an oil constituent and as a phenolic compound. Distillate oils from the Kiviter process can also be used as diluents for petroleum-originated heavy oils and as an adhesive-enhancing additive in bituminous materials such as asphalt.[7]

Usage

Before World War II, most shale oil was upgraded for use as transport fuels. Afterwards, it was used as a raw material for chemical intermediates, pure chemicals and industrial resins, and as a railroad wood preservative. As of 2008, it is primarily used as a heating oil and marine fuel, and to a lesser extent in the production of various chemicals.[1]

Shale oil's concentration of high-boiling point compounds is suited for the production of middle distillates such as kerosene, jet fuel, and diesel fuel.[4][8][9] Additional cracking can create the lighter hydrocarbons used in gasoline.[4][10]

Reserves and production

Main article: Oil shale reserves

Global technically-recoverable oil shale reserves have recently been estimated at about 2.8–3.3 trillion barrels of shale oil, with the largest reserves in the United States, which is thought to have 1.5–2.6 trillion barrels.[11][8][12][13] Worldwide production of shale oil was estimated at 11,600 barrels per day (1,840 m3/d) in 2002. The leading producers were Estonia (5,500 barrels per day (870 m3/d)), Brazil (3,100 barrels per day (490 m3/d)), and China (2,000 barrels per day (320 m3/d)).[14] In 2008, China led production with 470 million liters (ML), followed by Estonia (445 ML) and Brazil (250 ML).[15]

The production of shale oil has been hindered because of technical difficulties and costs.[16]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Purga, Jaanus (2007-10-16). "Shale Products – Production, Quality and Market Challenges" (PDF). 27th Oil Shale Symposium. Golden, Colorado: Colorado School of Mines. http://mines.conference-services.net/viewPDF.asp?abstractID=164698&conferenceID=1128. Retrieved 2008-12-24.
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  3. ↑ "Process for treating hot shale oil effluent from a retort – US Patent # 4181596". freepatentsonline.com. http://www.freepatentsonline.com/4181596.html. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
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  15. ↑ "Shale Oil". Government of Australia (Australian Atlas of Mineral Resources, Mines, and Processing Centres). http://www.australianminesatlas.gov.au/aimr/commodity/shale_oil_10.jsp. Retrieved 2010-11-27.
  16. ↑ Kraushaar, Jack P., and Robert A. Ristinen. Energy and the Environment-2nd ed. New York, NY: Wiley & Sons Inc., 2006. 54–56.
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